Quick Summary
- Two military coups in 1966 killed political leaders and ended the First Republic
- The Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) resulted from ethnic tensions and secession attempts
- Post-war reconstruction focused on the 3Rs: Reconciliation, Rehabilitation, and Reconstruction
- Military rule under Gowon, Murtala, and Obasanjo brought both stability and authoritarian control
- The period ended with a transition program leading to the Second Republic in 1979
The January 1966 Coup
On January 15, 1966, a group of young military officers led by Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu staged Nigeria’s first military coup. The plotters were frustrated with corruption and mismanagement in the First Republic.
The coup claimed the lives of several prominent leaders. In the North, the Sardauna of Sokoto (Sir Ahmadu Bello) and his wife were killed. Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was abducted and later killed. In the West, Premier Samuel Akintola died during the operation. Finance Minister Festus Okotie-Eboh was also assassinated.
Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, the most senior military officer, took control to restore order. He became Nigeria’s first military Head of State. However, the coup was seen as an “Igbo coup” because most victims were Northern and Western leaders, while the plotters were mainly Igbo officers. This perception created serious ethnic tensions.
Ironsi’s Government and Decree 34
Ironsi’s government lasted only six months. He tried to reform Nigeria’s federal structure by issuing Decree 34 in May 1966. This decree abolished the regions and created a unitary system of government, placing all power in Lagos.
Northern leaders strongly opposed this change. They saw it as an attempt by Igbos to dominate Nigeria. The decree sparked riots in Northern cities where many Igbos were killed. The tension set the stage for another coup.
The July 1966 Counter-Coup
On July 29, 1966, Northern officers carried out a revenge coup. They killed Ironsi and several Igbo officers. Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon, a Northern Christian from the Middle Belt, emerged as the new Head of State.
Gowon reversed Decree 34 and restored the federal system. He called for a constitutional conference to discuss Nigeria’s future. However, the Eastern Region’s military governor, Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, refused to recognize Gowon’s leadership.
Causes of the Nigerian Civil War
Several factors pushed Nigeria toward civil war. The massacres of Igbos in Northern Nigeria in 1966 created fear and anger. Over 30,000 Igbos were killed, and more than one million fled to the Eastern Region.
Economic issues also played a role. The Eastern Region produced most of Nigeria’s oil, and Easterners felt they should control their resources. Gowon’s plan to divide Nigeria into 12 states would have split the oil-rich Eastern Region, reducing its power and wealth.
Political distrust deepened when agreements made at the Aburi Conference in Ghana were not fully implemented. Ojukwu felt the federal government could not be trusted to protect Easterners.
The Biafran Secession and Civil War (1967-1970)
On May 30, 1967, Colonel Ojukwu declared the Eastern Region independent, naming it the Republic of Biafra. The federal government refused to accept this secession. War broke out in July 1967.
The war lasted 30 months and caused massive destruction. Federal forces, with superior numbers and weapons, gradually pushed back Biafran troops. The federal government blockaded Biafra, causing severe food shortages. Images of starving Biafran children shocked the world.
Several countries supported different sides. Britain, the Soviet Union, and Egypt backed the federal government. France, Portugal, and some African nations sympathized with Biafra. Many churches and humanitarian groups sent aid to Biafra.
The war ended on January 15, 1970, when Biafran forces surrendered. Ojukwu had fled to Ivory Coast days earlier. Major General Philip Effiong, who took over, signed the instrument of surrender. The war cost over one million lives, mostly from starvation and disease.
The 3Rs: Post-War Reconstruction
General Gowon declared a policy of “no victor, no vanquished” to promote healing. The federal government adopted the 3Rs program:
Reconciliation: The government granted amnesty to Biafran soldiers. No trials or executions took place. Igbos were encouraged to return to their jobs across Nigeria. Some federal positions were given to former Biafran officials.
Rehabilitation: The government worked to restore basic services in the war-damaged Eastern states. Schools, hospitals, and roads were rebuilt. The military set up feeding centers for malnourished children. Medical teams treated war injuries and diseases.
Reconstruction: The federal government invested heavily in rebuilding the Eastern economy. The Port Harcourt refinery was expanded. New infrastructure connected the region to the rest of Nigeria. However, many Igbos lost their property in other regions and received inadequate compensation.
Gowon’s Continued Rule (1970-1975)
After the war, Gowon’s government benefited from the oil boom. Rising oil prices brought massive revenue to Nigeria. The government launched ambitious projects like the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) in 1973, which aimed to promote national unity.
However, corruption grew. Gowon’s promise to hand over power to civilians by 1976 was not kept. He announced that Nigeria was not ready for democracy, losing public support.
The Murtala/Obasanjo Regime (1975-1979)
On July 29, 1975, General Murtala Mohammed overthrew Gowon in a bloodless coup. Murtala promised to fight corruption and return Nigeria to civilian rule. He purged thousands of corrupt officials and canceled Gowon’s abandoned projects.
Murtala created seven additional states, bringing the total to 19. He moved the federal capital from Lagos to Abuja to promote unity. His government was popular for its decisiveness.
Tragically, Murtala was assassinated on February 13, 1976, in a failed coup attempt led by Colonel Buka Suka Dimka. General Olusegun Obasanjo, who was Chief of Staff, took over and continued Murtala’s programs.
Obasanjo kept the promise to return Nigeria to democracy. His government organized a Constituent Assembly to draft a new constitution. Elections were held in 1979, and power was handed to Alhaji Shehu Shagari on October 1, 1979, ending 13 years of military rule.
Comparison of Military Leaders (1966-1979)
| Leader | Period | Major Achievements | Challenges/Failures |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aguiyi-Ironsi | Jan-July 1966 | Restored initial order after coup | Decree 34 caused ethnic tension; killed in counter-coup |
| Yakubu Gowon | 1966-1975 | Won civil war, 3Rs program, created 12 states, started NYSC | Prolonged rule, broken promise on transition, corruption |
| Murtala Mohammed | 1975-1976 | Anti-corruption purges, capital relocation, created 7 states | Assassinated after 7 months |
| Olusegun Obasanjo | 1976-1979 | Fulfilled transition promise, new constitution, conducted elections | Some economic mismanagement |
Common Exam Mistakes
WAEC examiners note that students often make these errors:
- Confusing the two 1966 coups: Remember January was led by mainly Igbo officers killing Northern/Western leaders; July was Northern officers killing Ironsi
- Wrong civil war dates: The war was 1967-1970, not 1966-1969
- Mixing up the 3Rs: It’s Reconciliation, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction – in that order
- Not explaining policies: Don’t just mention Decree 34; explain it created a unitary system which Northerners opposed
- Forgetting leaders’ full names: Use correct titles and spellings (e.g., Sir Ahmadu Bello, not just “Bello”)
- Vague descriptions: “Many people died” is weak; state “over one million casualties, mostly civilians from starvation”
Practice Questions
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Who led the January 15, 1966 coup in Nigeria?
a) Major General Aguiyi-Ironsi
b) Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu ✓
c) Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu
d) Lieutenant Colonel Yakubu Gowon
2. What was the federal government’s post-civil war policy called?
a) The 4Rs program
b) The Marshall Plan
c) The 3Rs program ✓
d) The Unity Policy
3. On what date did Biafra formally surrender?
a) May 30, 1967
b) July 6, 1967
c) January 15, 1970 ✓
d) October 1, 1970
4. Which decree by Ironsi created a unitary system of government?
a) Decree 1
b) Decree 34 ✓
c) Decree 13
d) Decree 4
Essay Questions
1. Explain five causes of the Nigerian Civil War. (10 marks)
Examiner’s tip: Use clear topic sentences. Each cause should be in a separate paragraph with explanation. Mention ethnic massacres, secession, resource control, failure of Aburi Agreement, and creation of states.
2. Describe the policy of the 3Rs adopted after the Nigerian Civil War. (6 marks)
Examiner’s tip: Define each R (Reconciliation, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction) with at least one example of how it was implemented. 2 marks per R.
3. Compare the achievements of Murtala Mohammed and Olusegun Obasanjo as military leaders. (8 marks)
Examiner’s tip: Use a point-by-point comparison structure. Mention anti-corruption efforts, state creation, capital relocation for Murtala; transition to democracy, constitution, elections for Obasanjo.
Memory Aids
- 3Rs: “Really Reliable Reconstruction” = Reconciliation, Rehabilitation, Reconstruction
- 1966 coups: “January Ironsi In, July Jack (Gowon) In”
- Civil war dates: “Six-Seven Started, Seven-Zero Stopped” (1967-1970)
- Victims of Jan 1966 coup: “ABSA” = Ahmadu Bello, Balewa, Samuel Akintola (+ Okotie-Eboh)
- Military leaders order: “I Go Make Order” = Ironsi, Gowon, Murtala, Obasanjo
Related Topics
- The First Republic (1960-1966)
- The Second Republic (1979-1983)
- Military Interventions in Nigerian Politics
- State Creation in Nigeria
- Nigeria’s Constitutional Development